Partial reinforcement schedules are determined by whether the reinforcement is presented on the basis of the time that elapses between reinforcement interval or on the basis of the number of responses that the organism engages in ratio , and by whether the reinforcement occurs on a regular fixed or unpredictable variable schedule. In a fixed-interval schedule , reinforcement occurs for the first response made after a specific amount of time has passed.
For instance, on a one-minute fixed-interval schedule the animal receives a reinforcement every minute, assuming it engages in the behaviour at least once during the minute.
As you can see in Figure 8. Most students study for exams the same way. In a variable-interval schedule , the reinforcers appear on an interval schedule, but the timing is varied around the average interval, making the actual appearance of the reinforcer unpredictable.
An example might be checking your email: you are reinforced by receiving messages that come, on average, say, every 30 minutes, but the reinforcement occurs only at random times. Interval reinforcement schedules tend to produce slow and steady rates of responding. In a fixed-ratio schedule , a behaviour is reinforced after a specific number of responses. A variable-ratio schedule provides reinforcers after a specific but average number of responses.
Winning money from slot machines or on a lottery ticket is an example of reinforcement that occurs on a variable-ratio schedule. For instance, a slot machine see Figure 8. Ratio schedules tend to produce high rates of responding because reinforcement increases as the number of responses increases. Skinner made extensive use of this procedure in his boxes. For instance, he could train a rat to press a bar two times to receive food, by first providing food when the animal moved near the bar.
When that behaviour had been learned, Skinner would begin to provide food only when the rat touched the bar. Further shaping limited the reinforcement to only when the rat pressed the bar, to when it pressed the bar and touched it a second time, and finally to only when it pressed the bar twice.
Although it can take a long time, in this way operant conditioning can create chains of behaviours that are reinforced only when they are completed. Behaviours can also be trained through the use of secondary reinforcers. Whereas a primary reinforcer includes stimuli that are naturally preferred or enjoyed by the organism, such as food, water, and relief from pain , a secondary reinforcer sometimes called conditioned reinforcer is a neutral event that has become associated with a primary reinforcer through classical conditioning.
An example of a secondary reinforcer would be the whistle given by an animal trainer, which has been associated over time with the primary reinforcer, food. An example of an everyday secondary reinforcer is money. We enjoy having money, not so much for the stimulus itself, but rather for the primary reinforcers the things that money can buy with which it is associated.
Kassin, S. Essentials of psychology. In operant conditioning, extinction of a reinforced behavior occurs at some point after reinforcement stops, and the speed at which this happens depends on the reinforcement schedule.
In a variable ratio schedule, the point of extinction comes very slowly, as described above. But in the other reinforcement schedules, extinction may come quickly. For example, if June presses the button for the pain relief medication before the allotted time her doctor has approved, no medication is administered. Among the reinforcement schedules, variable ratio is the most productive and the most resistant to extinction.
Fixed interval is the least productive and the easiest to extinguish [link]. The four reinforcement schedules yield different response patterns. The variable ratio schedule is unpredictable and yields high and steady response rates, with little if any pause after reinforcement e. A fixed ratio schedule is predictable and produces a high response rate, with a short pause after reinforcement e. The variable interval schedule is unpredictable and produces a moderate, steady response rate e.
The fixed interval schedule yields a scallop-shaped response pattern, reflecting a significant pause after reinforcement e. Skinner uses gambling as an example of the power and effectiveness of conditioning behavior based on a variable ratio reinforcement schedule. Beyond the power of variable ratio reinforcement, gambling seems to work on the brain in the same way as some addictive drugs. The Illinois Institute for Addiction Recovery n.
Specifically, gambling may activate the reward centers of the brain, much like cocaine does. Research has shown that some pathological gamblers have lower levels of the neurotransmitter brain chemical known as norepinephrine than do normal gamblers Roy, et al. According to a study conducted by Alec Roy and colleagues, norepinephrine is secreted when a person feels stress, arousal, or thrill; pathological gamblers use gambling to increase their levels of this neurotransmitter.
Another researcher, neuroscientist Hans Breiter, has done extensive research on gambling and its effects on the brain. Deficiencies in serotonin another neurotransmitter might also contribute to compulsive behavior, including a gambling addiction. However, it is very difficult to ascertain the cause because it is impossible to conduct a true experiment it would be unethical to try to turn randomly assigned participants into problem gamblers.
It also is possible that some overlooked factor, or confounding variable, played a role in both the gambling addiction and the differences in brain chemistry. Some research suggests that pathological gamblers use gambling to compensate for abnormally low levels of the hormone norepinephrine, which is associated with stress and is secreted in moments of arousal and thrill.
Although strict behaviorists such as Skinner and Watson refused to believe that cognition such as thoughts and expectations plays a role in learning, another behaviorist, Edward C. Tolman , had a different opinion. This finding was in conflict with the prevailing idea at the time that reinforcement must be immediate in order for learning to occur, thus suggesting a cognitive aspect to learning.
In the experiments, Tolman placed hungry rats in a maze with no reward for finding their way through it. He also studied a comparison group that was rewarded with food at the end of the maze. As the unreinforced rats explored the maze, they developed a cognitive map : a mental picture of the layout of the maze [link]. After 10 sessions in the maze without reinforcement, food was placed in a goal box at the end of the maze. As soon as the rats became aware of the food, they were able to find their way through the maze quickly, just as quickly as the comparison group, which had been rewarded with food all along.
This is known as latent learning : learning that occurs but is not observable in behavior until there is a reason to demonstrate it. Psychologist Edward Tolman found that rats use cognitive maps to navigate through a maze. Have you ever worked your way through various levels on a video game?
You learned when to turn left or right, move up or down. In that case you were relying on a cognitive map, just like the rats in a maze. Latent learning also occurs in humans. Children may learn by watching the actions of their parents but only demonstrate it at a later date, when the learned material is needed.
Instead, Ravi follows the same route on his bike that his dad would have taken in the car. This demonstrates latent learning. Ravi had learned the route to school, but had no need to demonstrate this knowledge earlier. However, some buildings are confusing because they include many areas that look alike or have short lines of sight.
Psychologist Laura Carlson suggests that what we place in our cognitive map can impact our success in navigating through the environment. She suggests that paying attention to specific features upon entering a building, such as a picture on the wall, a fountain, a statue, or an escalator, adds information to our cognitive map that can be used later to help find our way out of the building.
Operant conditioning is based on the work of B. Operant conditioning is a form of learning in which the motivation for a behavior happens after the behavior is demonstrated. An animal or a human receives a consequence after performing a specific behavior. The consequence is either a reinforcer or a punisher. All reinforcement positive or negative increases the likelihood of a behavioral response. All punishment positive or negative decreases the likelihood of a behavioral response.
Several types of reinforcement schedules are used to reward behavior depending on either a set or variable period of time. Explain the difference between negative reinforcement and punishment, and provide several examples of each based on your own experiences.
Think of a behavior that you have that you would like to change. How could you use behavior modification, specifically positive reinforcement, to change your behavior? What is your positive reinforcer? A Skinner box is an operant conditioning chamber used to train animals such as rats and pigeons to perform certain behaviors, like pressing a lever. When the animals perform the desired behavior, they receive a reward: food or water.
In negative reinforcement you are taking away an undesirable stimulus in order to increase the frequency of a certain behavior e. Punishment is designed to reduce a behavior e. Shaping is an operant conditioning method in which you reward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior. If you want to teach your dog to roll over, you might reward him first when he sits, then when he lies down, and then when he lies down and rolls onto his back.
Finally, you would reward him only when he completes the entire sequence: lying down, rolling onto his back, and then continuing to roll over to his other side. Skip to main content. Search for:. Operant Conditioning Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: Define operant conditioning Explain the difference between reinforcement and punishment Distinguish between reinforcement schedules.
Link to Learning Watch this brief video clip to learn more about operant conditioning: Skinner is interviewed, and operant conditioning of pigeons is demonstrated. Everyday Connection: Behavior Modification in Children.
Link to Learning Watch this video clip where veterinarian Dr. What is a Skinner box and what is its purpose? What is the difference between negative reinforcement and punishment? But causes are everywhere, and their importance does not always depend on their visibility or where they are to be found. Mainstream psychologists believe that thoughts and feelings are central to the phenomena they study — and so do Skinnerian radical behaviorists.
Mainstream psychologists also formulate theories purporting to explain phenomena that cannot be observed directly — and radical behaviorists, too, have done so for a long time e. Mainstream psychologists do not share this assumption. Might it be possible, then, that if behaviorists were to accept a line of argument like that advanced in the present article, a reintegration into psychology proper could take place?
The present author would be tempted to say yes. The present author might be wrong, however. For instance, there are certain practices and certain areas of research that are quite specific to behavior analysis, even if they do not necessarily depend on theoretical assumptions that are specific to that field. Incentives may exist that preserve such traditions, even if they may not be the most effective way of acquiring knowledge see Vyse, This may indicate that a change in theoretical outlook, if it were to happen, would not necessarily lead to a change in practice.
Moreover, it is sometimes said that new ideas are not accepted on account of facts and arguments, but because those who hold the old ideas die out. Yet facts are stubborn things — more stubborn, it seems, than human minds. The author confirmed being the sole contributor of this work and approved it for publication. The author declares that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
Bach, P. Google Scholar. Baker, A. Catania, A. Catania and S. Harnad Cambridge: Cambridge University Press , — Learning , 3rd Edn. Seagrasses and sediment response to changing physical forcing in a coastal lagoon. Earth Syst. Human nature [review of the book behave: the biology of humans at our best and worst, by R. Science Delprato, D. Some fundamentals of B. Doll, B. Dopaminergic genes predict individual differences in susceptibility to confirmation bias. Flora, S.
Cognitions, thoughts, private events, etc. Gauch, H. Scientific Method in Practice. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Gomes-Ng, S. How do reinforcers affect choice? Preference pulses after responses and reinforcers. Green, C. Historical impact in psychology differs between demographic groups. New Ideas Psychol. Guerin, B. Social behavior as discriminative stimulus and consequence in social anthropology. Haggbloom, S. The most eminent psychologists of the 20th century.
Hayes, S. Rule-governed behavior and sensitivity to changing consequences of responding. Acceptance and commitment therapy and contextual behavioral science: examining the progress of a distinctive model of behavioral and cognitive therapy.
Heron, W. Changes in hunger during starvation. Jefferys, W. Johnson, K. An assessment of differential reinforcement procedures for learners with autism spectrum disorder. Killeen, P. Lieberman, D. Human Learning and Memory.
Lokke, J. Think about these, write about them and share them with others. He gives examples of having school children sit in circles, rather than rows, and having employees work in open areas, rather than cubicles, as powerful means of fostering more interaction.
These are changes we may take for granted now, but when first implemented, they were rather ingenious. I like using sports analogies, since athletics have been a big part of my life, and something to which many others can relate.
He obviously had tremendous success as a basketball player and nobody would argue that his strengths as a player were his physical size and ability to overpower his opponents.
Now imagine if Shaquille had spent his career trying to hone his outside 3-point shot. While he did work on the weaker parts of his game, he built his career around his strengths and needless to say, achieved tremendous success.
What strategies did you use in those areas? For example, if being social is your strong suit, incorporate time with others into your strategies for change. For many, having a buddy to go to the gym with not only increases the likelihood of accomplishing that goal, but also makes it more enjoyable. Think about engaging in more challenging endeavors e. If the morning is this time for you, then take on more projects during the AM.
Be honest with yourself and set realistic goals. As BJ Fogg noted, starting small — even very small — can be quite helpful. Even though the negative behavior may cause some distress, the thought of giving it up and going into the unknown is scary. Find ways to work with the underlying fear.
For example, it can be helpful to reflect on past experiences of starting something new, to remind yourself of the many ways you managed the fear associated with change successfully. It can be helpful to explore the pay-offs you make when engaging in or avoiding a particular behavior — be it an external behavior e. Ask yourself: what do I gain from continuing to do this?
What do I lose? Would I treat a loved one this way? People often see the downside of negative behaviors, but have a hard time articulating the pay-offs. For some, the pay-off of predicting the worst is that it protects them from disappointment. For others, it provides a sense of being prepared for whatever is to come.
Catastrophic thinking is one way of dealing with the discomfort of uncertainty. Everybody has experienced procrastination, which is a prime example of exchanging a short-term gain for a longer-term loss. For example, watching TV can provide the short-term gratification associated with doing something pleasurable and relaxing.
But, the trade-off is that the longer-term goal of say, learning a new language or getting into shape, is put on the backburner. So, next time you are reflecting on behavior you would like to change, ask yourself, what are the pay-offs here? Greater awareness of these can free up room in your mind to make more positive choices. You are also part of many larger systems that include things like family, your work place, the broader community, etc.
Change is not always linear; making a change in one area i. For example, say your goal is to get into better physical shape.
If you are sleep deprived and you make a commitment to get an extra hour of sleep each night, you may find yourself more rested in the morning, which leads to greater motivation to exercise. Another example is related to engagement in spiritual endeavors. For example, mindfulness meditation has been shown to be helpful with coping with chronic pain. You may be surprised by how seemingly unrelated changes in one area of life can impact others in a non-linear way.
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